Human Value
There has long been discussion about how humans value biodiversity. One common distinction is between inherent worth and functional value. In the first case, all species are recognised as having intrinsic value, independent of their role in ecosystems or the benefits humans may assign to them. In the second, species are valued for their function, either through their role in ecosystems or through the services they provide for people. Over time, these categories have been subdivided in different ways, and boundaries between them often overlap.
A recent review by Himes et al. (2024) developed as part of the IPBES Values of Nature report (2022), synthesised this literature and proposed three main types of value: intrinsic, instrumental, and relational.
- Intrinsic value: the inherent worth of species, regardless of use or importance to humans.
- Instrumental value: the practical value of species, for example through ecosystem services, but also including their functional role in supporting ecosystems as a whole.
- Relational value: the value people attach through relationships with nature, such as a sense of place, cultural meaning, or appreciation of beauty
The 2022 the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) produced its Assessment Report on Diverse Values and Valuation of Nature
Table 1. from Himes, A., Muraca, B., Anderson, C.B., Athayde, S., Beery, T., Cantú-Fernández, M., González-Jiménez, D., Gould, R.K., Hejnowicz, A.P., Kenter, J. and Lenzi, D., 2024. Why nature matters: A systematic review of intrinsic, instrumental, and relational values. BioScience, 74(1), pp.25-43.
Table 1. Summary of core meanings, salient articulations, and most relevant associations of intrinsic, instrumental, and relational values that emerged from a systematic literature review and subsequent coding of 239 publications.
Ecosystem Services
The term ecosystem services describes the processes through which ecosystems support and benefit humans, directly and indirectly. Because these services are often provided at no financial cost, the framework has been used to estimate their economic value. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment identified four categories.
- Provisioning services are the products obtained from ecosystems, such as food, fresh water, timber, fibre, or medicinal plants.
- Regulating services are the benefits that come from ecosystem regulation, including climate control, flood protection, disease regulation, water purification, and pollination.
- Cultural services refer to the non-material benefits ecosystems provide, such as recreation, spiritual value, aesthetic appreciation, cultural heritage, and education.
- Supporting services are the fundamental processes that make all other services possible, including soil formation, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, habitat provision, and biodiversity maintenance.
